Citation: Yinzhou Guo, Yuanyuan Chen, Min Zhang, Chenhui Cui, Xiaoqing Ming, Zhang Qiang, Jiao Jiao, Yilong Cheng, Zhishen Ge, Yanfeng Zhang. Polymerizable deep eutectic solvent–based gels with recyclability and self-healing for low-temperature wearable sensing[J]. Chinese Chemical Letters, ;2026, 37(10): 112122. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.112122 shu

Polymerizable deep eutectic solvent–based gels with recyclability and self-healing for low-temperature wearable sensing

Yinzhou Guo ^{a, 1} ,
Yuanyuan Chen ^{a, 1} ,
Min Zhang ^c ,
Chenhui Cui ^a ,
Xiaoqing Ming ^a ,
Zhang Qiang ^a ,
Jiao Jiao ^a ,
Yilong Cheng ^{a, b} ,
Zhishen Ge ^{a, b} ,
Yanfeng Zhang ^{a, b, *,}

a.
School of Chemistry, Xi’an Key Laboratory of Sustainable Polymer Materials, Engineering Research Center of Energy Storage Materials and Devices, Ministry of Education, Institute of New Concept Sensors and Molecular Materials (INCSMM), Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
b.
State Key Laboratory of Fluorine & Nitrogen Chemicals, Xi’an 710049, China
c.
Northwest Rubber & Plastic Research and Design Institute Co., Ltd., Xianyang 712023, China

yanfengzhang@xjtu.edu.cn

Received Date: 15 September 2025
Revised Date: 13 November 2025
Accepted Date: 14 November 2025
Available Online: 14 November 2025

Figures(6)

Flexible wearable sensors require conductive elastomers that combine sustainability, durability, and reliable low-temperature performance. However, conventional hydrogels suffer from dehydration and freezing, while ionogels face challenges of leakage, high cost, and poor recyclability. Here, we introduce a novel polymerizable deep eutectic solvent (PDES) system based on natural lipoic acid and imidazolium derivatives, which serves as the foundation for constructing recyclable polymeric dynamic eutectic gels (PDDEGs). The PDES not only provides high ionic mobility and antifreeze capacity but also enables covalent crosslinking to form a robust yet dynamic polymeric network. Through synergistic hydrogen bonding, ionic conduction, and reversible zirconium coordination, PDDEGs achieve high stretchability, toughness, and strong adhesion. More importantly, they exhibit remarkable recyclability, efficient self-healing, and thermal remoldability, allowing solvent-free reprocessing, structural repair, and adaptive reshaping without performance loss. The gels remain flexible and conductive at −20 ℃ and function as reliable strain sensors with high sensitivity, fast response, and long-term durability in monitoring complex human motions. By combining a new class of polymerizable eutectic solvents with dynamic crosslinking, this work establishes a sustainable platform for next-generation wearable electronics capable of operating in extreme environments.
- Polymerizable deep eutectic solvent (PDES),
- Recyclable gel,
- Self-healing material,
- Low-temperature sensing,
- Wearable electronics
1. [1]
  S.W. Chen, Z. Qiao, Y. Niu, et al., Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 1 (2023) 950–971. doi: 10.1038/s44222-023-00094-w
2. [2]
  Z.W. Zhang, B.F. Feng, J.P. Yan, et al., Green Chem. 27 (2025) 1604–1619. doi: 10.1039/D4GC05504G
3. [3]
  F.C. Zheng, H.Y. Jiang, X.T. Yang, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 490 (2024) 151874. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.151874
4. [4]
  Z.W. Lin, S.S. Duan, M.Y. Liu, et al., Adv. Mater. 36 (2024) 202306880.
5. [5]
  S. Nakata, M. Shiomi, Y. Fujita, et al., Nat. Electron. 1 (2018) 596–603. doi: 10.1038/s41928-018-0162-5
6. [6]
  H. Jang, J. Lee, C.J. Beak, et al., Adv. Mater. 37 (2025) 202416073.
7. [7]
  X.J. Chen, Z.Z. Wan, R.H. Zhang, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 499 (2024) 156431. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.156431
8. [8]
  M.K. Li, Y.F. Zhang, L.S.Y. Lian, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 (2022) 202208141.
9. [9]
  Q. Zhang, Y. Wang, D.S. Li, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 (2023) 202209667.
10. [10]
  X.H. Zeng, Y. Lu, L.M. Zou, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 510 (2025) 161566. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2025.161566
11. [11]
  Z.J. Zhao, X. Fan, S.X. Wang, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 34 (2023) 107892. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2022.107892
12. [12]
  H.M. Lin, D.D. Zheng, X.L. Wu, et al., Sci. Adv. 10 (2024) 0730.
13. [13]
  P.F. Xu, S.J. Wang, A. Lin, et al., Nat. Commun. 14 (2023) 623. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-36214-8
14. [14]
  B. Yiming, S. Hubert, A. Cartier, et al., Nat. Commun. 16 (2025) 431.
15. [15]
  X.S. Pan, J. Li, N. Ma, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 461 (2023) 142062. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.142062
16. [16]
  H. Zhang, D.Z. Zhang, H.L. Cai, et al., Carbohydr. Polym. 360 (2025) 123601. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2025.123601
17. [17]
  T.K.N. Duong, T.T. Truong, T.N.L. Phan, et al., Aggregate 6 (2025) 70047. doi: 10.1002/agt2.70047
18. [18]
  Y.Y. Shi, C.C. Liu, Z.J. Zuo, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 36 (2025) 109772. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109772
19. [19]
  X.H. Cui, Y.B. Xi, S.W. Tu, et al., TrAC Trend Anal. Chem. 174 (2024) 117662. doi: 10.1016/j.trac.2024.117662
20. [20]
  S. Wang, J.L. Ning, J.Y. Pu, et al., Nano Mater. Sci. 7 (2025) 316–325. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoms.2025.06.005
21. [21]
  Y.H. Zhou, X. Fei, J. Tian, et al., Colloid Interface Sci 606 (2022) 192–203. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.07.158
22. [22]
  D.K. Yu, D.P. Jiang, Z.M. Xue, et al., Green Chem. 26 (2024) 7478–7507. doi: 10.1039/d4gc00136b
23. [23]
  M.R. Rabiei, M. Hosseini, G.B. Xu, Microchem. J. 203 (2024) 110909. doi: 10.1016/j.microc.2024.110909
24. [24]
  A. Prabhune, R. Dey, J. Mol. Liq. 379 (2023) 121676. doi: 10.1016/j.molliq.2023.121676
25. [25]
  H.H. Xiong, Y.Q. Wan, Y. Fan, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 35 (2024) 108382. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108382
26. [26]
  J.Y. Zhang, S. Li, L.P. Yao, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 34 (2023) 107750. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2022.107750
27. [27]
  T.Y. Chen, Y.J. Jiang, H.W. Chien, Polymers 15 (2023) 2605. doi: 10.3390/polym15122605
28. [28]
  M. Sang, J.J. Wang, D.Y. Zuo, et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 12 (2024) 2455–2464. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c07743
29. [29]
  T. Huang, Y.B. Zhang, L. Zhao, et al., Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 257 (2024) 128801. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128801
30. [30]
  J.T. Li, M.Z. Zhang, J.L. He, et al., Chem. Commun. 59 (2023) 8814–8817. doi: 10.1039/d3cc02158k
31. [31]
  Y. Tian, F. Jiang, H.J. Xie, et al., Adv. Healthc. Mater. 13 (2024) 202304117.
32. [32]
  K.X. Yu, Y.F. Gao, R. Wang, et al., Macromol. Rapid. Commun. 45 (2024) 202300557.
33. [33]
  P.Q. Yao, Q.W. Bao, Y. Yao, et al., Adv. Mater. 35 (2023) 202300114.
34. [34]
  X.J. Liu, J.B. Wang, P.F. Lv, et al., Energy Stor. Mater 69 (2024) 103382.
35. [35]
  X.J. Zhang, S. Liu, X.B. Wang, et al., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 654 (2024) 1348–1355. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.10.142
36. [36]
  L. Lin, R.A. Li, G.X. Chen, et al., Polym. Chem. 15 (2024) 783–795. doi: 10.1039/d3py01255g
37. [37]
  Y.H. Zhang, L. Jiang, H.B. Zhang, et al., Molecules 28 (2023) 4690. doi: 10.3390/molecules28124690
38. [38]
  W.K. Xu, T. Shen, Y.T. Ding, et al., Small 20 (2024) 202310072.
1. [1]
  Salim Ullah , Jianliang Shen , Hong-Tao Xu . Innovative self-healing conductive organogel: Pioneering the future of electronics. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(3): 110553-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110553
2. [2]
  Mengxiao Yang , Haicheng Huang , Shiyi Shen , Xinxin Liu , Mengyu Liu , Jiahua Guo , Fenghui Yang , Baoli Zha , Jiansheng Wu , Sheng Li , Fengwei Huo . Flexible aqueous zinc-ion battery with low-temperature resistant leather gel electrolyte. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(6): 109988-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109988
3. [3]
  Xiaosa Zhang , Shanghao Zhou , Xiaomin Chen , Xu Xu , Xiaoyan Shi , Zhiming Zhou , Yun Wan , Xinhui Zeng , Xunzhu Zhou , Xiang Chen , Shu-Lei Chou , Lin Li . Organic liquid electrolyte for low-temperature sodium-ion batteries. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(10): 111533-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111533
4. [4]
  Supphachok Chanmungkalakul , Syed Ali Abbas Abedi , Federico J. Hernández , Jianwei Xu , Xiaogang Liu . The dark side of cyclooctatetraene (COT): Photophysics in the singlet states of “self-healing” dyes. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(8): 109227-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109227
5. [5]
  Wen Liu , Qiwen Zhao , Hongli Qi , Dongping Chen , Fengcheng Tang , Xiaoyu Liu , Huaming Yu , Gang Zhou , Yuejiao Chen , Libao Chen . Synergy of constructing robust hybrid interphase and weakly solvating electrolyte for low-temperature aqueous zinc-ion batteries. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(5): 110893-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.110893
6. [6]
  Jiaqin Jiang , Lingqi Shen , Fangxi Xu , Lipeng Liu , Jian Li , Qiao Xu , Zuguang Li , Hongdeng Qiu . Ultrasound assisted in-situ formation of switchable deep eutectic solvent for extraction of polychlorinated biphenyls in water. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(9): 112412-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2026.112412
7. [7]
  Dingmei Zhang , Yaping Liu , Sirui Liu , Jun Wu , Zhenfeng Wu , Wei He . Deep eutectic solvent-mediated local delivery of Cacumen Platycladi essential oil against androgenetic alopecia. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(9): 111942-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111942
8. [8]
  Xiaoqian Wang , Yanling Shen , Long Chen , Lizhi Fang , Kuppusamy Kanagaraj , Ming Rao , Chunying Fan , Wanhua Wu , Cheng Yang . Azobenzene-winged phenanthroline for supramolecular chirality sensing and multidimensional chiroptical manipulation via solvent, light, temperature, and redox. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(2): 111710-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111710
9. [9]
  Aijia Zhang , Guiyuan Zhao , Guangli Xiang , Rui Chen , Yu Dong , Qijie Diao , Jialin Wang , Xiaohui Lin , Wenxuan Zeng , Tianze Jiang , Jun Wu , Xia Zhao . Barnacle-inspired chitosan glycerin gel for skin protection and wound healing in harsh environments. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(8): 110767-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110767
10. [10]
  Yifan LIU , Zhan ZHANG , Rongmei ZHU , Ziming QIU , Huan PANG . A three-dimensional flower-like Cu-based composite and its low-temperature calcination derivatives for efficient oxygen evolution reaction. Chinese Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, 2024, 40(5): 979-990. doi: 10.11862/CJIC.20240008
11. [11]
  Lijun Yan , Shiqi Chen , Penglu Wang , Xiangyu Liu , Lupeng Han , Tingting Yan , Yuejin Li , Dengsong Zhang . Hydrothermally stable metal oxide-zeolite composite catalysts for low-temperature NO_x reduction with improved N₂ selectivity. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(6): 109132-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109132
12. [12]
  Shanyuan Bi , Jin Zhang , Dengchao Peng , Danhong Cheng , Jianping Zhang , Lupeng Han , Dengsong Zhang . Improved N₂ selectivity for low-temperature NO_x reduction over etched ZSM-5 supported MnCe oxide catalysts. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(5): 110295-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110295
13. [13]
  Jiang Gong , Fengling Zheng , Hanqing Zhang , Weihan Shu , Hao Wang , Ni Zhang , Pengbing Huang , Chuancai Zhang , Bin Dai . The interfacial effect of SiO₂-Ni₃Mo₃N efficiently catalyzes the low-temperature hydrogenation of dimethyl oxalate to ethanol. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(8): 111122-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111122
14. [14]
  Zhilin Meng , Haiying Lu , Weijie Li . A low-temperature strategy enables atomic-level control in noble metal-based high-entropy catalysts. Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry, 2026, 45(3): 100800-100800. doi: 10.1016/j.cjsc.2025.100800
15. [15]
  He Ma , Kang Liang , Weizong Wang , Zhengping Ding , Lin Shi , Yurong Ren , Qian Zhao , Shoukun Xu . Enhanced low-temperature performance of Si/C composite anode materials with graphite (1010) surface: Insights from DFT and AIMD simulations. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(7): 111125-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111125
16. [16]
  Peng Wang , Daijie Deng , Suqin Wu , Li Xu . Cobalt-based deep eutectic solvent modified nitrogen-doped carbon catalyst for boosting oxygen reduction reaction in zinc-air batteries. Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry, 2024, 43(1): 100199-100199. doi: 10.1016/j.cjsc.2023.100199
17. [17]
  Bin Zhao , Wenyue Cui , Wenhao Huang , Zongsu Han , Zhonghang Chen , Peng Cheng , Wei Shi . Recyclable construction of chiral hydrogen-bonded frameworks via inducer-modulated spontaneous resolution for enantioselective sensing. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(5): 111975-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111975
18. [18]
  Xiaohui Yu , Guanpeng Zhou , Siyan Li , Yuanfeng Wang , Juan Zhang , Xiaotong Fan , Xiaoshan Fan , Jiajia Shen , Hui Ma , Zibiao Li . Strain-gated tactile-to-pain sensing and vectorial mapping with recyclable e-skin. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(10): 112097-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.112097
19. [19]
  Yuanfei Liu , Wanjiao Wei , Xu Liu , Rui Hua , Yanjuan Liu , Yuefei Zhang , Wei Chen , Sheng Tang . Green and mild synthesis of Ca-MOF/COF functionalized silica microspheres in an acid-base tunable deep eutectic solvent for multi-mode chromatography. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(1): 111186-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111186
20. [20]
  Zheng Li , Fangkun Li , Xijun Xu , Jun Zeng , Hangyu Zhang , Lei Xi , Yiwen Wu , Linwei Zhao , Jiahe Chen , Jun Liu , Yanping Huo , Shaomin Ji . A scalable approach to Na₄Fe₃(PO₄)₂P₂O₇@carbon/expanded graphite as cathode for ultralong-lifespan and low-temperature sodium-ion batteries. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(10): 110390-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110390

Get Citation

PDF

XML

Metrics

PDF Downloads(0)
Abstract views(3)
HTML views(0)

通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com

1.
沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院沈阳 110142