Citation: Xin Liu, Haoran Zhu, Yi Wang, Haili Zhang, Yujie Li, Hongcheng Gao, Yi Han, Dejin Wang, Yunsheng Xia. Carbon dots-embedded hydrogel ratiometric fluorescent platform for portable determination of doxorubicin in clinical samples[J]. Chinese Chemical Letters, ;2026, 37(2): 111891. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111891 shu

Carbon dots-embedded hydrogel ratiometric fluorescent platform for portable determination of doxorubicin in clinical samples

Xin Liu ^a ,
Haoran Zhu ^a ,
Yi Wang ^{a, *,} ,
Haili Zhang ^a ,
Yujie Li ^a ,
Hongcheng Gao ^a ,
Yi Han ^a ,
Dejin Wang ^{a, *,} ,
Yunsheng Xia ^{b, *,}

a.
College of Resources and Environment, Anqing Normal University, Anqing 246133, China
b.
College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, China

wangyi@aqnu.edu.cn

wangdj@aqnu.edu.cn

xiayuns@mail.ahnu.edu.cn

Received Date: 30 April 2025
Revised Date: 5 September 2025
Accepted Date: 24 September 2025
Available Online: 24 September 2025

Figures(7)

Portable ratiometric fluorescent platforms have emerged as promising tools for multifarious detection, yet remain unexplored for point-of-care monitoring doxorubicin (DOX), one of clinically antineoplastic drugs. To this end, we herein develop a portable self-calibrating platform namely carbon dots (C-dots)-embedded hydrogel sensors with a smartphone-assisted high-throughput imaging device, for DOX sensing. The prepared green-emitting (λ_em = 508 nm) and negatively-charged C-dots (−11.40 ± 1.21 mV), which have sufficient spectral overlap with the absorption band of DOX (~500 nm), can strongly bind with positively-charged DOX molecules by electrostatic attraction effects. As a result, DOX molecules are selectively and rapid (20 s) determined with a detection limit of 10.26 nmol/L via Förster resonance energy transfer processes, demonstrating a remarkably chromatic shift from green to red. Further integrated with a 3D-printed smartphone-assisted device, the platform enabled high-throughput quantification, achieving recoveries of 96.40%–101.85% in human urine/serum (RSDs < 2.94%, n = 3). Notably, the dual linear detection ranges of the platform align with the reported clinical DOX concentrations in urine and plasma (0–4 h post-administration), validating their capability for direct quantification of DOX in clinical samples without special pre-treatment processes. By virtue of attractive analytical performances and robust feasibility, this platform bridges laboratory precision and point-of-care testing needs, offering promising potential for personalized chemotherapy and multiplexed analyte screening.
- Portable platform,
- Carbon dots,
- Doxorubicin,
- Point-of-care monitoring,
- Clinical samples
1. [1]
  G. Xun, S.T. Lane, V.A. Petrov, B.E. Pepa, H. Zhao, Nat. Commun. 12 (2021) 2905. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-23185-x
2. [2]
  J.K. Jung, K.K. Alam, M.S. Verosloff, et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 38 (2020) 1451–1459. doi: 10.1038/s41587-020-0571-7
3. [3]
  Y. Shen, Y. Wei, C. Zhu, J. Cao, D.M. Han, Coord. Chem. Rev. 458 (2022) 214442. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214442
4. [4]
  J. Wu, W. Liu, J. Ge, H. Zhang, P. Wang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 40 (2011) 3483–3495. doi: 10.1039/c0cs00224k
5. [5]
  Z. Cao, C. Li, Y. Shu, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 145 (2023) 26425–26434. doi: 10.1021/jacs.3c10556
6. [6]
  L. Guo, T. Wang, Z. Wu, et al., Adv. Mater. 32 (2020) 2004805. doi: 10.1002/adma.202004805
7. [7]
  X. Xu, A. Liu, D. Pang, Chem. Res. Chin. Univ. 40 (2024) 162–172. doi: 10.1007/s40242-024-4034-4
8. [8]
  C. Ye, M. Wang, J. Min, et al., Nat. Nanotechnol. 19 (2024) 330–337. doi: 10.1038/s41565-023-01513-0
9. [9]
  M. Sun, M. Liang, R. Kong, et al., Anal. Chem. 96 (2024) 17907–17913. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c04813
10. [10]
  S. Banerjee, P. Das, Sens. Actuators B Chem. 401 (2024) 135002. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2023.135002
11. [11]
  Y. Liu, Y. Li, S. Koo, et al., Chem. Rev. 122 (2022) 209–268. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00553
12. [12]
  Y. Xia, L. Song, C. Zhu, Anal. Chem. 83 (2011) 1401–1407. doi: 10.1021/ac1028825
13. [13]
  S. Wu, H. Min, W. Shi, P. Cheng, Adv. Mater. 32 (2020) 1805871. doi: 10.1002/adma.201805871
14. [14]
  Q. Zhou, X. Wang, K. Tang, et al., Talanta 278 (2024) 126402. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126402
15. [15]
  Y. Shi, W. Li, X. Feng, et al., Food Chem. 344 (2021) 128694. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128694
16. [16]
  L. Guo, D.M. Zhao, S. Chen, Y.L. Yu, J.H. Wang, Anal. Chem. 94 (2022) 14004–14011. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03319
17. [17]
  R. Umapathi, S.M. Ghoreishian, S. Sonwal, et al., Coord. Chem. Rev. 453 (2022) 214305. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2021.214305
18. [18]
  L. Tian, C. Cheng, Z. Zhao, W. Liu, L. Qi, Chem. Res. Chin. Univ. 39 (2023) 1092–1099. doi: 10.1007/s40242-023-3193-z
19. [19]
  S. Sritharan, N. Sivalingam, Life Sci. 278 (2021) 119527. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119527
20. [20]
  F. Yang, S.S. Teves, C.J. Kemp, S. Henikoff, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Rev. Cancer 1845 (2014) 84–89. doi: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2013.12.002
21. [21]
  H. Stower, Nat. Med. 26 (2020) 163.
22. [22]
  W.D. Tap, R.L. Jones, B.A. Van Tine, et al., Lancet 388 (2016) 488–497. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30587-6
23. [23]
  J.B. Katzenmeyer, C.V. Eddy, E.A. Arriaga, Anal. Chem. 82 (2010) 8113–8120. doi: 10.1021/ac1011415
24. [24]
  Y. Wang, T. Lv, K. Yin, et al., Small 19 (2023) 2207048. doi: 10.1002/smll.202207048
25. [25]
  Y. Hu, C.H. Lu, W. Guo, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (2015) 6867–6874. doi: 10.1002/adfm.201503134
26. [26]
  Z.H. Yang, J. Yin, L. Xin, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 35 (2024) 109558. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109558
27. [27]
  Y. Hu, O. Seivert, Y. Tang, H.E. Karahan, A. Bianco, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 63 (2024) 202412341. doi: 10.1002/anie.202412341
28. [28]
  J. Zhang, J. Jin, J. Wan, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 408 (2021) 127351. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.127351
29. [29]
  H. Liu, X. Sun, Y. Dai, X. Zhang, F. Xia, Chem. Res. Chin. Univ. 40 (2024) 326–332. doi: 10.1007/s40242-024-4029-1
30. [30]
  S. Xu, L. Li, D. Lin, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 34 (2023) 107997. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2022.107997
31. [31]
  M. Xie, J. Chen, Y. Wang, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 35 (2024) 108575. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108575
32. [32]
  Y. Fan, J. Li, Y. Guo, L. Xie, G. Zhang, Measurement 171 (2021) 108829. doi: 10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108829
33. [33]
  X. Mao, M. Shi, C. Chen, et al., Biosens. Bioelectron. 247 (2024) 115919. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115919
34. [34]
  Q. Zhang, Z. Zhang, S. Xu, et al., J. Hazard. Mater. 436 (2022) 129320. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129320
35. [35]
  Y. Wang, G. Guo, J. Gao, et al., Chem. Mater. 32 (2020) 8146–8157. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.0c01391
36. [36]
  Y. Wang, Z. Li, G. Guo, Y. Xia, Anal. Chem. 95 (2023) 2765–2773. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03781
37. [37]
  D.W. Boukhvalov, V.Y. Osipov, D. Murzalinov, A. Serikkanov, H. Bi, Carbon 225 (2024) 119101. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2024.119101
38. [38]
  S. Li, Q. Zhou, Z. Li, M. Liu, Y. Li, Chin. Chem. Lett. 35 (2024) 108693. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108693
39. [39]
  S. Lu, G. Xiao, L. Sui, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56 (2017) 6187–6191. doi: 10.1002/anie.201700757
40. [40]
  M. Liang, G. Song, Y. Wan, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 35 (2024) 108573. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108573
41. [41]
  G. Guo, Y. Xia, Anal. Chem. 96 (2024) 5095–5105. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04489
42. [42]
  M. Liu, X. Hao, S. Dai, et al., Chem. Res. Chinese Univ. 39 (2023) 234–239. doi: 10.1007/s40242-022-2142-6
43. [43]
  M. Zhao, M. Lin, G. Guo, Y. Xia, Anal. Chem. 96 (2024) 20169–20178. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03799
44. [44]
  C. Kreukler, K.U. Köhrmann, P. Alken, M.J. Siegsmund, A. Steidler, Eur. Urol. 31 (2017) 365–370.
45. [45]
  R.J. Cersosimo, W.K. Hong, J. Clin. Oncol. 4 (1986) 425–439. doi: 10.1200/JCO.1986.4.3.425
46. [46]
  M.A. Le Bot, J.M. Bégué, D. Kernaleguen, et al., Biochem. Pharmacol. 37 (1988) 3877–3887. doi: 10.1016/0006-2952(88)90069-X
47. [47]
  W.R. Bezwoda, R.D. Dansey, Leuk. Lymphoma 1 (1990) 221–225. doi: 10.3109/10428199009042483
48. [48]
  H. Yao, Y. Zhang, F. Xiao, Z. Xia, J. Rao, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 46 (2007) 4346–4349. doi: 10.1002/anie.200700280
49. [49]
  W.R. Algar, N. Hildebrandt, S.S. Vogel, I.L. Medintz, Nat. Methods 16 (2019) 815–829. doi: 10.1038/s41592-019-0530-8
50. [50]
  M. Szota, B. Jachimska, Pharmaceutics 15 (2023) 875. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15030875
51. [51]
  B. Jachimska, M. Goncerz, P. Wolski, et al., Mol. Pharm. 21 (2024) 5892–5904. doi: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00941
52. [52]
  O. Maliszewska, A. Plenis, I. Olędzka, et al., J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 158 (2018) 376–385. doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.06.031
53. [53]
  F. Chekin, V. Myshin, R. Ye, et al., Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 411 (2019) 1509–1516. doi: 10.1007/s00216-019-01611-w
1. [1]
  Shuangying Li , Qingxiang Zhou , Zhi Li , Menghua Liu , Yanhui Li . Sensitive measurement of silver ions in environmental water samples integrating magnetic ion-imprinted solid phase extraction and carbon dot fluorescent sensor. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(5): 108693-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108693
2. [2]
  Hongyi Huang , Siyao Che , Wenjie Zhou , Yunchu Zhang , Weiling Zhuo , Xijing Yang , Songping Zheng , Jiagang Liu , Xiang Gao . Apatinib potentiates doxorubicin with cRGD-functionalized pH-sensitive micelles against glioma. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(5): 110084-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110084
3. [3]
  Jia Wang , Yunxiu Fan , Shilin Xu , Zhouxue Wu , Tian Hu , Yun Lu , Yue Li , Kang Xiong , Hongjun Deng , Jingrong Huang , Bo Yang , Shaozhi Fu . Self-propelled biomotors co-deliver doxorubicin liposomes and aPD-1 antibody to fight breast cancer. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(2): 111607-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111607
4. [4]
  Xiaopeng Han , Jiayin Li , Fei Li , Zhongyue Yuan , Hao Li , Lei Yang , Yan-Ming Xia , Chao Teng , Chao Qin , Lifang Yin . ROS-sensitive dihydroartemisinin prodrug amplify chemo-immunotherapy efficacy of doxorubicin by coordinating robust tumor cell immunogenic cell death and PD-L1 blockade. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2026, 37(2): 111335-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111335
5. [5]
  Ping Wang , Chunmao Chen , Hongwei Ren , Erhong Duan . A review of carbon dots in synthesis strategies, photoluminescence mechanisms, and applications in wastewater treatment. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(9): 110725-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110725
6. [6]
  Yupeng Liu , Hui Wang , Songnan Qu . Review on near-infrared absorbing/emissive carbon dots: From preparation to multi-functional application. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(5): 110618-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110618
7. [7]
  Qiang Fu , Shouhong Sun , Kangzhi Lu , Ning Li , Zhanhua Dong . Boron-doped carbon dots: Doping strategies, performance effects, and applications. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(7): 109136-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109136
8. [8]
  Chenghao Liu , Xiaofeng Lin , Jing Liao , Min Yang , Min Jiang , Yue Huang , Zhizhi Du , Lina Chen , Sanjun Fan , Qitong Huang . Carbon dots-based dopamine sensors: Recent advances and challenges. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(12): 109598-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109598
9. [9]
  Quan Zhang , Shunjie Xing , Jingqian Han , Li Feng , Jianchun Li , Zhaosheng Qian , Jin Zhou . Organic pollutant sensing for human health based on carbon dots. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(1): 110117-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110117
10. [10]
  Yuan Liu , Boyang Wang , Yaxin Li , Weidong Li , Siyu Lu . Understanding excitonic behavior and electroluminescence light emitting diode application of carbon dots. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(2): 110426-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110426
11. [11]
  Jianye Kang , Xinyu Yang , Xuhao Yang , Jiahui Sun , Yuhang Liu , Shutao Wang , Wenlong Song . Carbon dots-enhanced pH-responsive lubricating hydrogel based on reversible dynamic covalent bondings. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(5): 109297-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109297
12. [12]
  Rui Cheng , Tingting Zhang , Xin Huang , Jian Yu . Facile synthesis of high-brightness green-emitting carbon dots with narrow bandwidth towards backlight display. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(5): 108763-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108763
13. [13]
  Wu-Jian Long , Yang Yu , Chuang He . A novel and promising engineering application of carbon dots: Enhancing the chloride binding performance of cement. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(6): 108943-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108943
14. [14]
  Qiang Li , Jiangbo Fan , Hongkai Mu , Lin Chen , Yongzhen Yang , Shiping Yu . Nucleus-targeting orange-emissive carbon dots delivery adriamycin for enhanced anti-liver cancer therapy. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(6): 108947-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108947
15. [15]
  Boran Cheng , Lei Cao , Chen Li , Fang-Yi Huo , Qian-Fang Meng , Ganglin Tong , Xuan Wu , Lin-Lin Bu , Lang Rao , Shubin Wang . Fluorine-doped carbon quantum dots with deep-red emission for hypochlorite determination and cancer cell imaging. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(6): 108969-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108969
16. [16]
  Xiaoning Li , Quanyu Shi , Meng Li , Ningxin Song , Yumeng Xiao , Huining Xiao , Tony D. James , Lei Feng . Functionalization of cellulose carbon dots with different elements (N, B and S) for mercury ion detection and anti-counterfeit applications. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(7): 109021-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109021
17. [17]
  Hao Cai , Xiaoyan Wu , Lei Jiang , Feng Yu , Yuxiang Yang , Yan Li , Xian Zhang , Jian Liu , Zijian Li , Hong Bi . Lysosome-targeted carbon dots with a light-controlled nitric oxide releasing property for enhanced photodynamic therapy. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(4): 108946-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108946
18. [18]
  Liwen Wang , Boyang Wang , Siyu Lu , Shubo Lv , Xiaoli Qu . High quantum yield yellow emission carbon dots for the construction of blue light blocking films. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(2): 110497-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110497
19. [19]
  Meiling Xu , Xinyang Li , Pengyuan Liu , Junjun Liu , Xiao Han , Guodong Chai , Shuangling Zhong , Bai Yang , Liying Cui . A novel and visible ratiometric fluorescence determination of carbaryl based on red emissive carbon dots by a solvent-free method. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(2): 109860-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109860
20. [20]
  Quanxing Mao , Zhengliang Wang , Zhinan Hu , Ziqi Yang , Hui Li , Yali Yao , Zijun Yong , Tianyi Ma . Facial detection of formaldehyde by using acidichromic carbon dots and the reaction between formaldehyde and ammonium chloride. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(7): 110499-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110499

Get Citation

PDF

XML

Metrics

PDF Downloads(0)
Abstract views(11)
HTML views(1)

通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com

1.
沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院沈阳 110142