Citation: Sadia Rani, Najoua Sbei, Seyfeddine Rahali, Samina Aslam, Tomas Hardwick, Nisar Ahmed. Electrochemical synthesis: A green & powerful approach to modern organic synthesis and future directions[J]. Chinese Chemical Letters, ;2025, 36(11): 111216. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111216 shu

Electrochemical synthesis: A green & powerful approach to modern organic synthesis and future directions

a.
Department of Chemistry, The Women University Multan, Multan 60000, Pakistan
b.
Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares (Madrid) 28871, Spain
c.
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia
d.
School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, United Kingdom

AhmedN14@cardiff.ac.uk

nisarhej@gmail.com

Received Date: 26 November 2024
Revised Date: 7 April 2025
Accepted Date: 15 April 2025
Available Online: 16 April 2025

Figures(55)

Electrochemical synthesis is a safe, mild and environmentally friendly alternative to chemical oxidants and reductants. It uses electricity to catalyze redox reactions. However, understanding the tools and techniques involved is crucial for maximizing its benefits in academic and industrial applications. Still, for a novice, electrosynthesis can be a somewhat intimidating. Therefore, we provide guidance to synthetic chemists by highlighting key concepts and offering practical tips. In this review article, we focus on the utilization of electro-auxiliaries, indirect electrosynthesis, alternating electrode electrolysis (AEE), microreactors for electrochemical processes, and paired electrochemical reactions. These strategies are illustrated with selected examples. The use of electrodes and electroanalytical methods such as cyclic voltammetry are discussed. It highlights the advantages of merging electrochemistry and photochemistry, and the challenges of specific organic solvents and electrolytes. The incorporation of electrochemistry into a continuous chemical flow system further advances green activation technologies in terms of efficiency, applicability, sustainability, and selectivity to deliver more efficient and cleaner synthetic processes. Furthermore, this manuscript also emphasizes improvements in current approaches and future directions for large-scale electrosynthesis.
- Organic electrosynthesis,
- Electrocatalysis,
- Scale-up electrosynthesis,
- Paired electrolysis,
- Cyclic voltammetry,
- Photoelectrocatalysis
1. [1]
  M. Faraday, Annalen der Physik 109 (1834) 149–189. doi: 10.1002/andp.18341090803
2. [2]
  W.M. Sudduth, Ambix 27 (1980) 26–35. doi: 10.1179/amb.1980.27.1.26
3. [3]
  J.O.M. Bockris, A.K. Reddy, Modern Electrochemistry 2B: Electrodics in Chemistry, Engineering, Biology and Environmental Science, Springer Science & Business Media, 1998.
4. [4]
  M. Yan, Y. Kawamata, P.S. Baran, Chem. Rev. 117 (2017) 13230–13319. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00397
5. [5]
  A. Wiebe, T. Gieshoff, S. Möhle, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57 (2018) 5594–5619. doi: 10.1002/anie.201711060
6. [6]
  H. Lund, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002) S21. doi: 10.1149/1.1462037
7. [7]
  L.F. Novaes, J. Liu, Y. Shen, et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 50 (2021) 7941–8002. doi: 10.1039/d1cs00223f
8. [8]
  H.J. Schäfer, Comptes Rendus Chim. 14 (2011) 745–765. doi: 10.1016/j.crci.2011.01.002
9. [9]
  E.J. Horn, B.R. Rosen, P.S. Baran, ACS Cent. Sci. 2 (2016) 302–308. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.6b00091
10. [10]
  S. Rani, S. Aslam, K. Lal, et al., Chem. Rec. 24 (2024) e202300331. doi: 10.1002/tcr.202300331
11. [11]
  C. Schotten, T.P. Nicholls, R.A. Bourne, et al., Green Chem. 22 (2020) 3358–3375. doi: 10.1039/d0gc01247e
12. [12]
  M.C. Leech, K. Lam, Nat. Rev. Chem. 6 (2022) 275–286. doi: 10.1038/s41570-022-00372-y
13. [13]
  G. Hilt, ChemElectroChem 7 (2020) 395–405. doi: 10.1002/celc.201901799
14. [14]
  C. Kingston, M.D. Palkowitz, Y. Takahira, et al., Acc. Chem. Res. 53 (2019) 72–83.
15. [15]
  Y. Kawamata, P.S. Baran, Joule 4 (2020) 701–704. doi: 10.1016/j.joule.2020.02.002
16. [16]
  F. Gomollón-Bel, Chem. Int. 41 (2019) 12–17. doi: 10.1515/ci-2019-0203
17. [17]
  L. Capaldo, L.L. Quadri, D. Ravelli, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 (2019) 17508–17510. doi: 10.1002/anie.201910348
18. [18]
  C.F. Carter, H. Lange, S.V. Ley, et al., Org. Process Res. Dev. 14 (2010) 393–404. doi: 10.1021/op900305v
19. [19]
  D.S. Cardoso, B. Sljukic, D.M. Santos, C.A. Sequeira, Org. Process Res. Dev. 21 (2017) 1213–1226. doi: 10.1021/acs.oprd.7b00004
20. [20]
  Y. Yuan, A. Lei, Nat. Commun. 11 (2020) 802. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-14322-z
21. [21]
  S. Lips, S.R. Waldvogel, ChemElectroChem 6 (2019) 1649–1660. doi: 10.1002/celc.201801620
22. [22]
  S. Möhle, M. Zirbes, E. Rodrigo, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57 (2018) 6018–6041. doi: 10.1002/anie.201712732
23. [23]
  M. Yan, Y. Kawamata, P.S. Baran, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57 (2018) 4149–4155. doi: 10.1002/anie.201707584
24. [24]
  D. Pollok, S.R. Waldvogel, Chem. Sci. 11 (2020) 12386–12400. doi: 10.1039/d0sc01848a
25. [25]
  B. Huang, Z. Sun, G. Sun, eScience 2 (2022) 243–277. doi: 10.1016/j.esci.2022.04.006
26. [26]
  R. Holze, Organic electrochemistry, Series: Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry, Wiley Online Library, 2005, pp. 2832–2833.
27. [27]
  H.R. Stephen, C. Schotten, T.P. Nicholls, et al., Org. Process Res. Dev. 24 (2020) 1084–1089. doi: 10.1021/acs.oprd.0c00091
28. [28]
  S. Maljuric, W. Jud, C.O. Kappe, D. Cantillo, J. Flow Chem. 10 (2020) 181–190. doi: 10.1007/s41981-019-00050-z
29. [29]
  Y. Takahira, M. Chen, Y. Kawamata, et al., Synlett 30 (2019) 1178–1182. doi: 10.1055/s-0037-1611737
30. [30]
  J. Jörissen, Practical Aspects of Preparative Scale Electrolysis, in: Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Wiley Online Libaray, 2007.
31. [31]
  T. Fuchigami, M. Atobe, S. Inagi, Fundamentals and Applications of Organic Electrochemistry: Synthesis, Materials, Devices, John Wiley & Sons, 2014.
32. [32]
  A.J. Bard, L.R. Faulkner, H.S. White, Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons, 2022.
33. [33]
  D. Wang, T. Jiang, H. Wan, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 (2022) e202201543. doi: 10.1002/anie.202201543
34. [34]
  Y. Yuan, J.C. Qi, D.X. Wang, et al., CCS Chem. 4 (2022) 2674–2685. doi: 10.31635/ccschem.021.202101350
35. [35]
  E.O. Bortnikov, B.S. Smith, D.M. Volochnyuk, S.N. Semenov, Chem. Eur. J. 29 (2023) e202203825. doi: 10.1002/chem.202203825
36. [36]
  J. Fährmann, G. Hilt, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 (2021) 20313–20317. doi: 10.1002/anie.202107148
37. [37]
  Y. Hioki, M. Costantini, J. Griffin, et al., Science 380 (2023) 81–87. doi: 10.1126/science.adf4762
38. [38]
  Y. Kawamata, P.S. Baran, J. Synth. Org. Chem. Japan 81 (2023) 1020–1027. doi: 10.5059/yukigoseikyokaishi.81.1020
39. [39]
  A.F. Garrido-Castro, Y. Hioki, Y. Kusumoto, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 (2023) e202309157. doi: 10.1002/anie.202309157
40. [40]
  Y. Kawamata, K. Hayashi, E. Carlson, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143 (2021) 16580–16588. doi: 10.1021/jacs.1c06572
41. [41]
  D.E. Blanco, B. Lee, M.A. Modestino, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 116 (2019) 17683–17689. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1909985116
42. [42]
  S. Bera, S. Sen, D. Maiti, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 146 (2024) 25166–25175. doi: 10.1021/jacs.4c08826
43. [43]
  S.R. Waldvogel, S. Lips, M. Selt, B. Riehl, C.J. Kampf, Chem. Rev. 118 (2018) 6706–6765. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00233
44. [44]
  C.F. Blanford, R.S. Heath, F.A. Armstrong, Chem. Commun. (2007) 1710–1712. doi: 10.1039/b703114a
45. [45]
  M.K. Debe, Nature 486 (2012) 43–51. doi: 10.1038/nature11115
46. [46]
  S.J. Yoo, L.J. Li, C.C. Zeng, R.D. Little, Angew. Chem. 127 (2015) 3815–3818. doi: 10.1002/ange.201410207
47. [47]
  R. Francke, R.D. Little, Chem. Soc. Rev. 43 (2014) 2492–2521. doi: 10.1039/c3cs60464k
48. [48]
  N. Sauermann, T.H. Meyer, Y. Qiu, L. Ackermann, ACS Catal. 8 (2018) 7086–7103. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.8b01682
49. [49]
  S. Herold, S. Möhle, M. Zirbes, et al., Electrochemical Amination of Less-Activated Alkylated Arenes Using Boron-Doped Diamond Anodes, Wiley Online Library, 2016.
50. [50]
  V. Colic, A.S. Bandarenka, ACS Catal. 6 (2016) 5378–5385. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.6b00997
51. [51]
  A. Dribinskii, M. Tarasevich, V. Kazarinov, Mater. Chem. Phys. 22 (1989) 377–400. doi: 10.1016/0254-0584(89)90006-0
52. [52]
  M. Okajima, S. Suga, K. Itami, J.I. Yoshida, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127 (2005) 6930–6931. doi: 10.1021/ja050414y
53. [53]
  H. Tomiyasu, H. Shikata, K. Takao, et al., Sci. Rep. 7 (2017) 45048. doi: 10.1038/srep45048
54. [54]
  M. Chhetri, S. Sultan, C. Rao, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 114 (2017) 8986–8990. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1710443114
55. [55]
  M. Wickramasinghe, I.Z. Kiss, J. Electrochem. Soc. 163 (2016) H1171. doi: 10.1149/2.0471614jes
56. [56]
  M.A. Rahim, R.A. Hameed, M. Khalil, J. Power Sources 134 (2004) 160–169. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.02.034
57. [57]
  S. Bull, A. Matthews, Diam. Relat. Mater. 1 (1992) 1049–1064. doi: 10.1016/0925-9635(92)90075-Y
58. [58]
  N.R. Stradiotto, K.E. Toghill, L. Xiao, A. Moshar, R.G. Compton, Electroanal. An Int. J. Devoted to Fundam. Pract. Asp. Electroanal. 21 (2009) 2627–2633. doi: 10.1002/elan.200900325
59. [59]
  P. Joshi, P. Riley, K.Y. Goud, R.K. Mishra, R. Narayan, Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 32 (2022) 100920. doi: 10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100920
60. [60]
  T. Kashiwada, T. Watanabe, Y. Ootani, Y. Tateyama, Y. Einaga, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) 28299–28305. doi: 10.1021/acsami.5b11638
61. [61]
  J. Roeser, N.F. Alting, H.P. Permentier, A.P. Bruins, R. Bischoff, Anal. Chem. 85 (2013) 6626–6632. doi: 10.1021/ac303795c
62. [62]
  S. Anantharaj, S. Chatterjee, K.C. Swaathini, et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 6 (2018) 2498–2509. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03964
63. [63]
  E. Oberrauch, L. Eberson, J. Appl. Electrochem. 16 (1986) 575–582. doi: 10.1007/BF01006852
64. [64]
  S. Anantharaj, M. Venkatesh, A.S. Salunke, et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 5 (2017) 10072–10083. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b02090
65. [65]
  G. Laudadio, E. Barmpoutsis, C. Schotten, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141 (2019) 5664–5668. doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b02266
66. [66]
  P. Sartori, N. Ignat’ev, J. Fluor. Chem. 87 (1998) 157–162. doi: 10.1016/S0022-1139(97)00139-5
67. [67]
  P.E. Karthik, I. Alessandri, A. Sengeni, J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 (2020) 125503. doi: 10.1149/1945-7111/abb0f2
68. [68]
  C. Rousseau, F. Baraud, L. Leleyter, O. Gil, J. Hazard. Mater. 167 (2009) 953–958. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.01.083
69. [69]
  J. Chaussard, J.C. Folest, J.Y. Nedelec, et al., Synthesis (1990) 369–381 1990.
70. [70]
  K. Izutsu, Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions, John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
71. [71]
  V.V. Pavlishchuk, A.W. Addison, Inorg. Chim. Acta 298 (2000) 97–102. doi: 10.1016/S0020-1693(99)00407-7
72. [72]
  D. Prat, J. Hayler, A. Wells, Green Chem. 16 (2014) 4546–4551. doi: 10.1039/C4GC01149J
73. [73]
  M. Kathiresan, D. Velayutham, Chem. Commun. 51 (2015) 17499–17516. doi: 10.1039/C5CC06961K
74. [74]
  D. Pletcher, R.A. Green, R.C. Brown, Chem. Rev. 118 (2017) 4573–4591.
75. [75]
  N. Elgrishi, K.J. Rountree, B.D. McCarthy, et al., J. Chem. Educ. 95 (2018) 197–206. doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361
76. [76]
  R.E. White, Electrochemical Cell Design, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
77. [77]
  C. Ma, P. Fang, D. Liu, et al., Chem. Sci. 12 (2021) 12866–12873. doi: 10.1039/d1sc04011a
78. [78]
  H. Senboku, M. Hayama, H. Matsuno, Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 18 (2022) 1040–1046. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.18.105
79. [79]
  M.C. Leech, A.D. Garcia, A. Petti, A.P. Dobbs, K. Lam, React. Chem. Eng. 5 (2020) 977–990. doi: 10.1039/d0re00064g
80. [80]
  H. Salehzadeh, D. Nematollahi, H. Hesari, Green Chem. 15 (2013) 2441–2446. doi: 10.1039/c3gc40954f
81. [81]
  H. Lund, M.M. Baizer, Organic Electrochemistry: an Introduction and a Guide, 3rd ed., New York, 1983.
82. [82]
  A. Wiebe, B. Riehl, S. Lips, R. Franke, S.R. Waldvogel, Sci. Adv. 3 (2017) eaao3920. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aao3920
83. [83]
  B.H. Suryanto, Y. Wang, R.K. Hocking, W. Adamson, C. Zhao, Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 5599. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13415-8
84. [84]
  S. Arndt, D. Weis, K. Donsbach, S.R. Waldvogel, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59 (2020) 8036–8041. doi: 10.1002/anie.202002717
85. [85]
  S.H. Park, M. Ju, A.J. Ressler, et al., Aldrichimica Acta 54 (2021) 17–27.
86. [86]
  C. Gütz, M. Bänziger, C. Bucher, T.R. Galvão, S.R. Waldvogel, Org. Process Res. Dev. 19 (2015) 1428–1433. doi: 10.1021/acs.oprd.5b00272
87. [87]
  C.M. Cirtiu, A. Brisach-Wittmeyer, H. Ménard, J. Catal. 245 (2007) 191–197. doi: 10.1016/j.jcat.2006.10.010
88. [88]
  A. Sáez, V. García-García, J. Solla-Gullón, A. Aldaz, V. Montiel, Electrochim. Acta 91 (2013) 69–74. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.12.097
89. [89]
  R. Bandichhor, A. Bhattacharya, L. Diorazio, et al., Org. Process Res. Dev. 16 (2012) 1887–1896. doi: 10.1021/op300251d
90. [90]
  C.M. Cirtiu, H.O. Hassani, N.A. Bouchard, P.A. Rowntree, H. Ménard, Langmuir 22 (2006) 6414–6421. doi: 10.1021/la0519002
91. [91]
  G. St-Pierre, A. Chagnes, N.A. Bouchard, et al., Langmuir 20 (2004) 6365– 6373. doi: 10.1021/la048977v
92. [92]
  F. Marken, A.J. Cresswell, S.D. Bull, Chem. Rec. 21 (2021) 2585–2600. doi: 10.1002/tcr.202100047
93. [93]
  S. Li, X. Sun, Z. Yao, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019) 1904780. doi: 10.1002/adfm.201904780
94. [94]
  M.M. Baizer, R. Hallcher, J. Electrochem. Soc. 123 (1976) 809. doi: 10.1149/1.2132937
95. [95]
  C.A. Paddon, M. Atobe, T. Fuchigami, et al., J. Appl. Electrochem. 36 (2006) 617–634. doi: 10.1007/s10800-006-9122-2
96. [96]
  Y.Y. Jiang, G.Y. Dou, L.S. Zhang, Adv. Synth. Catal. 361 (2019) 5170–5175. doi: 10.1002/adsc.201901011
97. [97]
  R. Matthessen, J. Fransaer, K. Binnemans, D.E. De Vos, Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 10 (2014) 2484–2500. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.10.260
98. [98]
  H. Putter, H. Hannebaum, Preparation of Phthalides, United States Patent, 2000 US6063256A.
99. [99]
  X.H. Chadderdon, D.J. Chadderdon, T. Pfennig, B.H. Shanks, W. Li, Green Chem. 21 (2019) 6210–6219. doi: 10.1039/c9gc02264c
100. [100]
  Y. Ma, X. Yao, L. Zhang, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 (2019) 16548–16552. doi: 10.1002/anie.201909642
101. [101]
  Y. Liu, L. Xue, B. Shi, et al., Chem. Commun. 55 (2019) 14922–14925. doi: 10.1039/c9cc08528a
102. [102]
  W. Li, T. Nonaka, J. Electrochem. Soc. 146 (1999) 592. doi: 10.1149/1.1391649
103. [103]
  J. Strehl, M.L. Abraham, G. Hilt, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 (2021) 9996–10000. doi: 10.1002/anie.202016413
104. [104]
  W. Zhang, N. Hong, L. Song, N. Fu, Reaching the Full Potential of Electroorganic Synthesis By Paired Electrolysis, Wiley Online Library, 2021.
105. [105]
  K.D. Moeller, Chem. Rev. 118 (2018) 4817–4833. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00656
106. [106]
  C. Costentin, J.M. Savéant, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 116 (2019) 11147–11152. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1904439116
107. [107]
  M.N. Jackson, Y. Surendranath, Acc. Chem. Res. 52 (2019) 3432–3441. doi: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00439
108. [108]
  J.M. Savéant, Chem. Rev. 108 (2008) 2348–2378. doi: 10.1021/cr068079z
109. [109]
  A. Yazdani, G.G. Botte, Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 29 (2020) 89–95. doi: 10.1016/j.coche.2020.07.003
110. [110]
  D. Xu, K. Li, B. Jia, et al., Carbon Energy 5 (2023) e230. doi: 10.1002/cey2.230
111. [111]
  R. Francke, R.D. Little, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014) 427–435. doi: 10.1021/ja410865z
112. [112]
  S. Dapperheld, E. Steckhan, K.H.G. Brinkhaus, T. Esch, Chem. Berichte 124 (1991) 2557–2567. doi: 10.1002/cber.19911241127
113. [113]
  M. Uchimiya, A.T. Stone, Chemosphere 77 (2009) 451–458. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.07.025
114. [114]
  R. Francke, R.D. Little, ChemElectroChem 6 (2019) 4373–4382. doi: 10.1002/celc.201900432
115. [115]
  T. Broese, R. Francke, Org. Lett. 18 (2016) 5896–5899. doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.6b02979
116. [116]
  X.Y. Qian, S.Q. Li, J. Song, H.C. Xu, ACS Catal. 7 (2017) 2730–2734. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.7b00426
117. [117]
  Z.J. Wu, H.C. Xu, Angew. Chem. 129 (2017) 4812–4816. doi: 10.1002/ange.201701329
118. [118]
  Z.X. Wu, G.W. Hu, Y.X. Luan, ACS Catal. 12 (2022) 11716–11733. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.2c03261
119. [119]
  F. Bai, N. Wang, Y. Bai, et al., J. Org. Chem. 88 (2023) 2985–2998. doi: 10.1021/acs.joc.2c02700
120. [120]
  Y. Hussain, D. Sharma, N. Kotwal, I. Kumar, P. Chauhan, ChemSusChem 15 (2022) e202200415. doi: 10.1002/cssc.202200415
121. [121]
  A. Murtaza, Z. Ulhaq, B. Shirinfar, et al., Chem. Rec. 23 (2023) e202300119. doi: 10.1002/tcr.202300119
122. [122]
  Y. Lai, A. Halder, J. Kim, T.J. Hicks, P.J. Milner, Angew. Chem. 135 (2023) e202310246. doi: 10.1002/ange.202310246
123. [123]
  A.A. Folgueiras-Amador, A.E. Teuten, M. Salam-Perez, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 (2022) e202203694. doi: 10.1002/anie.202203694
124. [124]
  Y. Wang, Z. Zhao, D. Pan, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 (2022) e202210201. doi: 10.1002/anie.202210201
125. [125]
  K. Yang, T. Feng, Y. Qiu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 (2023) e202312803. doi: 10.1002/anie.202312803
126. [126]
  G.M. Martins, N. Sbei, G.C. Zimmer, N. Ahmed, C–H activation/functionalization via metalla-electrocatalysis, in: L. Khotseng (Ed.), Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment-Fundamentals and Applications, IntechOpen, 2021, pp. 103–124.
127. [127]
  L. Ackermann, Acc. Chem. Res. 53 (2019) 84–104.
128. [128]
  C.A. Malapit, M.B. Prater, J.R. Cabrera-Pardo, et al., Chem. Rev. 122 (2021) 3180–3218.
129. [129]
  S. Zhang, M. Findlater, ACS Catal. 13 (2023) 8731–8751. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.3c01221
130. [130]
  S. Changmai, S. Sultana, A.K. Saikia, ChemistrySelect 8 (2023) e202203530. doi: 10.1002/slct.202203530
131. [131]
  T. Kerackian, D. Bouyssi, G. Pilet, et al., ACS Catal. 12 (2022) 12315–12325. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.2c03268
132. [132]
  J. Fu, W. Lundy, R. Chowdhury, et al., ACS Catal. 13 (2023) 9336–9345. doi: 10.1021/acscatal.3c01939
133. [133]
  F. Lian, K. Xu, W. Meng, et al., Chem. Commun. 55 (2019) 14685–14688. doi: 10.1039/c9cc07840a
134. [134]
  T. Koyanagi, A. Herath, A. Chong, et al., J. Loren, Org. Lett. 21 (2019) 816–820. doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b04090
135. [135]
  H. Li, C.P. Breen, H. Seo, et al., Org. Lett. 20 (2018) 1338–1341. doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b00070
136. [136]
  S. Manabe, C.M. Wong, C.S. Sevov, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142 (2020) 3024–3031. doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b12112
137. [137]
  D. Pletcher, F.C. Walsh, Industrial Electrochemistry, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
138. [138]
  M.J. Orella, Y. Román-Leshkov, F.R. Brushett, Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 20 (2018) 159–167. doi: 10.1016/j.coche.2018.05.002
139. [139]
  C. Gütz, A. Stenglein, S.R. Waldvogel, Org. Process Res. Dev. 21 (2017) 771–778. doi: 10.1021/acs.oprd.7b00123
140. [140]
  A.A. Folgueiras-Amador, T. Wirth, J. Flow Chem. 7 (2017) 94–95. doi: 10.1556/1846.2017.00020
141. [141]
  M. Elsherbini, T. Wirth, Acc. Chem. Res. 52 (2019) 3287–3296. doi: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00497
142. [142]
  B. Gleede, M. Selt, C. Gütz, A. Stenglein, S.R. Waldvogel, Org. Process Res. Dev. 24 (2019) 1916–1926.
143. [143]
  A.R. Bogdan, A.W. Dombrowski, J. Med. Chem. 62 (2019) 6422–6468. doi: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01760
144. [144]
  M. Atobe, H. Tateno, Y. Matsumura, Chem. Rev. 118 (2017) 4541–4572.
145. [145]
  T. Glasnov, Continuous-flow Chemistry in the Research Laboratory, Springer, 2016.
146. [146]
  M.B. Plutschack, B.u. Pieber, K. Gilmore, P.H. Seeberger, Chem. Rev. 117 (2017) 11796–11893. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00183
147. [147]
  N. Tanbouza, T. Ollevier, K. Lam, iScience 23 (2020) 101720. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101720
148. [148]
  T. Noël, Y. Cao, G. Laudadio, Acc. Chem. Res. 52 (2019) 2858–2869. doi: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00412
149. [149]
  T.H. Rehm, Chem. Eur. J. 26 (2020) 16952–16974. doi: 10.1002/chem.202000381
150. [150]
  J. Hartwig, J.B. Metternich, N. Nikbin, A. Kirschning, S.V. Ley, Org. Biomol. Chem. 12 (2014) 3611–3615. doi: 10.1039/C4OB00662C
151. [151]
  M. Elsherbini, B. Winterson, H. Alharbi, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 (2019) 9811–9815. doi: 10.1002/anie.201904379
152. [152]
  K.J. Frankowski, R. Liu, G.L. Milligan, K.D. Moeller, J. Aubé, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54 (2015) 10555–10558. doi: 10.1002/anie.201504775
153. [153]
  T. Gieshoff, V. Trieu, J. Heijl, S.R. Waldvogel, Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 14 (2018) 1578–1582. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.14.135
154. [154]
  A. Shatskiy, H. Lundberg, M.D. Kärkäs, ChemElectroChem 6 (2019) 4067–4092. doi: 10.1002/celc.201900435
155. [155]
  D.R. Abernethy, A.J. DeStefano, T.L. Cecil, et al., Pharm. Res. 27 (2010) 750–755. doi: 10.1007/s11095-010-0080-3
156. [156]
  B.R. Rosen, E.W. Werner, A.G. O’Brien, P.S. Baran, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014) 5571–5574. doi: 10.1021/ja5013323
157. [157]
  A. Lipp, M. Selt, D. Ferenc, et al., Org. Lett. 21 (2019) 1828–1831. doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b00419
158. [158]
  A. Lipp, D. Ferenc, C. Gütz, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57 (2018) 11055–11059. doi: 10.1002/anie.201803887
159. [159]
  J.I. Yosida, Encyclopedia of Applied Electrochemistry, Springer Nature, 2014, pp. 386–392.
160. [160]
  Q. Lin, L. Li, S. Luo, Chem. Eur. J. 25 (2019) 10033–10044. doi: 10.1002/chem.201901284
161. [161]
  X. Chang, Q. Zhang, C. Guo, Angew. Chem. 132 (2020) 12712–12722. doi: 10.1002/ange.202000016
162. [162]
  M. Ghosh, V.S. Shinde, M. Rueping, Beilstein J. Org. Chem. 15 (2019) 2710–2746. doi: 10.3762/bjoc.15.264
163. [163]
  S. Assavapanumat, M. Ketkaew, A. Kuhn, C. Wattanakit, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141 (2019) 18870–18876. doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b10507
164. [164]
  P. Xiong, M. Hemming, S.I. Ivlev, E. Meggers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 144 (2022) 6964–6971. doi: 10.1021/jacs.2c01686
165. [165]
  T. Osa, Y. Kashiwagi, T. Ono, F. Kurashima, U. Akiba, Int. J. Soc. Mater. Eng. Resour. 20 (2014) 49–53. doi: 10.5188/ijsmer.20.49
166. [166]
  C. Wattanakit, A. Kuhn, Chem. Eur. J. 26 (2020) 2993–3003. doi: 10.1002/chem.201904835
167. [167]
  M. Kuroboshi, H. Yoshihisa, M.N. Cortona, et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 41 (2000) 8131–8135. doi: 10.1016/S0040-4039(00)01419-2
168. [168]
  W.C. Gao, Z.Y. Xiong, S. Pirhaghani, T. Wirth, Synthesis 51 (2019) 276– 284. doi: 10.1055/s-0037-1610373
169. [169]
  Q. Zhang, X. Chang, L. Peng, C. Guo, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 (2019) 6999–7003. doi: 10.1002/anie.201901801
170. [170]
  H. Lin, Y. Tang, S. Dong, R. Lang, H. Chen, Catal. Sci. Technol. 10 (2020) 2145–2151. doi: 10.1039/d0cy00081g
171. [171]
  P. Zhao, Y. Yin, Chin. J. Org. Chem. 23 (2003) 628–635.
172. [172]
  K. Yamamoto, M. Kuriyama, O. Onomura, Acc. Chem. Res. 53 (2019) 105–120. doi: 10.15261/serdj.26.105
173. [173]
  T. Shono, H. Hamaguchi, Y. Matsumura, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97 (1975) 4264–4268. doi: 10.1021/ja00848a020
174. [174]
  J.I. Yoshida, S. Isoe, Tetrahedron Lett. 28 (1987) 6621–6624. doi: 10.1016/S0040-4039(00)96929-6
175. [175]
  H. Sun, K.D. Moeller, Org. Lett. 4 (2002) 1547–1550. doi: 10.1021/ol025776e
176. [176]
  D. Karipal Padinjare Veedu, L.A. Connal, L.R. Malins, Org. Lett. 25 (2023) 3633–3638. doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c00988
177. [177]
  A. Ray, A Handbook of Elementary Electrochemistry, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, 2017.
178. [178]
  K. Lam, W.E. Geiger, J. Org. Chem. 78 (2013) 8020–8027. doi: 10.1021/jo401263z
179. [179]
  C.R. McElroy, A. Constantinou, L.C. Jones, L. Summerton, J.H. Clark, Green Chem. 17 (2015) 3111–3121. doi: 10.1039/C5GC00340G
180. [180]
  J. Conti, P. Holtberg, J. Diefenderfer, et al., International Energy Outlook 2016 With Projections to 2040, 2016.
181. [181]
  C. Sequeira, D. Santos, J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 20 (2009) 387–406. doi: 10.1590/S0103-50532009000300002
182. [182]
  G.G. Botte, Electrochem. Soc. Interface 23 (2014) 49–55. doi: 10.1149/2.F04143if
183. [183]
  D. Pletcher, F.C. Walsh, Electrochemical engineering, in: Industrial Electrochemistry, Springer, Dordrecht, 1993, pp. 60–172.
184. [184]
  D. Danly, J. Electrochem. Soc. 131 (1984) 435C. doi: 10.1149/1.2115324
185. [185]
  G.G. Botte, D.A. Daramola, M. Muthuvel, 9.14 Preparative electrochemistry for organic synthesis, in: Paul Knochel (Ed.), Comprehensive Organic Synthesis, 2nd Ed., Elsevier, 2014, pp. 351–389.
186. [186]
  H. Lund, O. Hammerich, Organic Electrochemistry, Fourth Edition, Marcel Dekker, New York, 2001.
187. [187]
  H.B. Gray, Nat. Chem. 1 (2009) 7. doi: 10.1038/nchem.141
188. [188]
  B. O’regan, M. Grätzel, Nature 353 (1991) 737–740. doi: 10.1038/353737a0
189. [189]
  R.C. McAtee, E.A. Noten, C.R.J. Stephenson, Nat. Commun. 11 (2020) 1–8. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-13993-7
190. [190]
  J.K. Matsui, D.N. Primer, G.A. Molander, Chem. Sci. 8 (2017) 3512–3522. doi: 10.1039/C7SC00283A
191. [191]
  Y. Qiu, A. Scheremetjew, L.H. Finger, L. Ackermann, Chem. Eur. J. 26 (2020) 3241–3246. doi: 10.1002/chem.201905774
192. [192]
  L. Qian, M. Shi, Chem. Commun. 59 (2023) 3487–3506. doi: 10.1039/d3cc00437f
193. [193]
  M.S. Platz, R.A. Moss, M. Jones Jr, Reviews of Reactive Intermediate Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
194. [194]
  A. Albini, M. Fagnoni, Photochemically-generated Intermediates in Synthesis, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
195. [195]
  M.A. Ischay, T.P. Yoon, Eur. J. Org. Chem. (2012) 3359–3372 2012. doi: 10.1002/ejoc.201101071
196. [196]
  W. Koch, M.C. Holthausen, A Chemist’s Guide to Density Functional Theory, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 2nd Edition, 2001, pp. 3–293.
197. [197]
  K. Vinodgopal, S. Hotchandani, P.V. Kamat, J. Phys. Chem. 97 (1993) 9040–9044. doi: 10.1021/j100137a033
198. [198]
  D.H. Kim, M.A. Anderson, Environ. Sci. Technol. 28 (1994) 479–483. doi: 10.1021/es00052a021
199. [199]
  I.U. Haque, J.F. Rusling, Chemosphere 26 (1993) 1301–1309. doi: 10.1016/0045-6535(93)90183-6
200. [200]
  S. Ichikawa, R. Doi, Catal. Today 27 (1996) 271–277. doi: 10.1016/0920-5861(95)00198-0
201. [201]
  P. Roy, S. Berger, P. Schmuki, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50 (2011) 2904–2939. doi: 10.1002/anie.201001374
202. [202]
  J. Liu, L. Lu, D. Wood, et al., Org. Chem. Front 7 (2020) 1895–1902. doi: 10.1039/D0QO00486C
203. [203]
  T. Hardwick, N. Ahmed, ACS Sustain Chem. Eng. 9 (2021) 4324–4340. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c08434
204. [204]
  F. Wang, S.S. Stahl, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 (2019) 6385–6390. doi: 10.1002/anie.201813960
205. [205]
  J.I. Yoshida, K. Kataoka, R. Horcajada, A. Nagaki, Chem. Rev. 108 (2008) 2265–2299. doi: 10.1021/cr0680843
206. [206]
  T. Pokhrel, B. BK, R. Giri, A. Adhikari, N. Ahmed, Chem. Rec. 22 (2022) e202100338. doi: 10.1002/tcr.202100338
207. [207]
  J. Clausmeyer, P. Wilde, T. Löffler, et al., Electrochem. Commun. 73 (2016) 67–70. doi: 10.1016/j.elecom.2016.11.003
208. [208]
  M. AtobeG. Kreysa, K. Ota, R.F. Savinell (Eds.), Electrosynthesis under Ultrasound and Centrifugal Fields, Encyclopedia of Applied Electrochemistry (2014) 821–826.
1. [1]
  Yue Zhang , Xiaoya Fan , Xun He , Tingyu Yan , Yongchao Yao , Dongdong Zheng , Jingxiang Zhao , Qinghai Cai , Qian Liu , Luming Li , Wei Chu , Shengjun Sun , Xuping Sun . Ambient electrosynthesis of urea from carbon dioxide and nitrate over Mo₂C nanosheet. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(8): 109806-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109806
2. [2]
  Xuyun Lu , Yanan Chang , Shasha Wang , Xiaoxuan Li , Jianchun Bao , Ying Liu . Hydrogen peroxide electrosynthesis via two-electron oxygen reduction: From pH effect to device engineering. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(5): 110277-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110277
3. [3]
  Mingxing Chen , Xue Li , Nian Liu , Zihe Du , Zhitao Wang , Jing Qi . A zinc-nitrate battery for efficient ammonia electrosynthesis and energy output by a high entropy hydroxide catalyst. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(10): 111294-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111294
4. [4]
  Jihong Li , Zhenying Feng , Xiaokun Sheng , Keren Chen , Jingming Ran , Luyao Li , Lei Shi , Tongzhou Wang , Yida Deng . Square-meter-scale nickel-based anode: Facile room-temperature construction for efficient industrial water electrolysis. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(11): 111652-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111652
5. [5]
  Chunru Liu , Ligang Feng . Advances in anode catalysts of methanol-assisted water-splitting reactions for hydrogen generation. Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry, 2023, 42(10): 100136-100136. doi: 10.1016/j.cjsc.2023.100136
6. [6]
  Guan-Nan Xing , Di-Ye Wei , Hua Zhang , Zhong-Qun Tian , Jian-Feng Li . Pd-based nanocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction: Preparation, performance, and in-situ characterization. Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry, 2023, 42(11): 100021-100021. doi: 10.1016/j.cjsc.2023.100021
7. [7]
  Shaojie Ding , Henan Wang , Xiaojing Dai , Yuru Lv , Xinxin Niu , Ruilian Yin , Fangfang Wu , Wenhui Shi , Wenxian Liu , Xiehong Cao . Mn-modulated Co–N–C oxygen electrocatalysts for robust and temperature-adaptative zinc-air batteries. Chinese Journal of Structural Chemistry, 2024, 43(7): 100302-100302. doi: 10.1016/j.cjsc.2024.100302
8. [8]
  Pingfan Zhang , Shihuan Hong , Ning Song , Zhonghui Han , Fei Ge , Gang Dai , Hongjun Dong , Chunmei Li . Alloy as advanced catalysts for electrocatalysis: From materials design to applications. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(6): 109073-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109073
9. [9]
  Ming Yue , Yi-Rong Wang , Jia-Yong Weng , Jia-Li Zhang , Da-Yu Chi , Mingjin Shi , Xiao-Gang Hu , Yifa Chen , Shun-Li Li , Ya-Qian Lan . Multi-metal porous crystalline materials for electrocatalysis applications. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(6): 110049-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110049
10. [10]
  Qingming Zeng , Yanjun Wen , Beibei Gao , Qingyan Zhang , Lulin Guo , Chao Zhang , Jiachen Wang , Qingyi Zeng . Self-driven photoelectrocatalytic systems with carbon-felt-loaded carboxylated carbon nanotube cathodes: Reduction of uranyl, oxidation of organics, and power generation. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(9): 110673-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110673
11. [11]
  Shuai Chen , Anzai Shi , Guoqing Yang , Pengfei Xie , Feng Liu , Youai Qiu . Electrochemical demethoxyl-cyanation of methoxyarenes via S_NAr. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(9): 110810-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110810
12. [12]
  Xianxu Chu , Lu Wang , Junru Li , Hui Xu . Surface chemical microenvironment engineering of catalysts by organic molecules for boosting electrocatalytic reaction. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(8): 109105-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109105
13. [13]
  Wei Zhou , Xi Chen , Lin Lu , Xian-Rong Song , Mu-Jia Luo , Qiang Xiao . Recent advances in electrocatalytic generation of indole-derived radical cations and their applications in organic synthesis. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(4): 108902-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108902
14. [14]
  Qi Zhang , Bin Han , Yucheng Jin , Mingrun Li , Enhui Zhang , Jianzhuang Jiang . 2D and 3D phthalocyanine covalent organic frameworks for electrocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(9): 110330-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110330
15. [15]
  Xinyu Wu , Jianfeng Lu , Zihao Zhu , Suijun Liu , Herui Wen . Recent advances of metal-organic frameworks and MOF-derived materials based on p-block metal for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2025, 36(7): 110151-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110151
16. [16]
  Shengkai Li , Yuqin Zou , Chen Chen , Shuangyin Wang , Zhao-Qing Liu . Defect engineered electrocatalysts for C–N coupling reactions toward urea synthesis. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(8): 109147-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109147
17. [17]
  Xinyu Ren , Hong Liu , Jingang Wang , Jiayuan Yu . Electrospinning-derived functional carbon-based materials for energy conversion and storage. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(6): 109282-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109282
18. [18]
  Zhihao Gu , Jiabo Le , Hehe Wei , Zehui Sun , Mahmoud Elsayed Hafez , Wei Ma . Unveiling the intrinsic properties of single NiZnFeO_x entity for promoting electrocatalytic oxygen evolution. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(4): 108849-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108849
19. [19]
  Zhao Li , Huimin Yang , Wenjing Cheng , Lin Tian . Recent progress of in situ/operando characterization techniques for electrocatalytic energy conversion reaction. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(9): 109237-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.109237
20. [20]
  Weiping Xiao , Yuhang Chen , Qin Zhao , Danil Bukhvalov , Caiqin Wang , Xiaofei Yang . Constructing the synergistic active sites of nickel bicarbonate supported Pt hierarchical nanostructure for efficient hydrogen evolution reaction. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2024, 35(12): 110176-. doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110176

Get Citation

PDF

XML

Metrics

PDF Downloads(0)
Abstract views(22)
HTML views(2)

通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com

1.
沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院沈阳 110142