English

Wet Spinning Assembled Graphene Fiber: Processing, Structure, Property, and Smart Applications

• Zhou Xia ^1, ,
• Yuanlong Shao ^{1, 2, ,}

• 1.

  College of Energy, Soochow Institute for Energy and Materials InnovationS, SUDA-BGI Collaborative Innovation Center, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, Jiangsu Province, China

• 2.

  Beijing Graphene Institute (BGI), Beijing 100095, China

Corresponding author: Yuanlong Shao, Email: ylshao@suda.edu.cn

• Received Date: 22 March 2021
  Accepted Date: 23 April 2021
  Revised Date: 22 April 2021
  Available Online: 15 September 2022
• Fund Project:

  the National Natural Science Foundation of China 

  the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, China 

  the Open Research Funds of State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Donghua University, China 

Abstract: Graphene fiber, a macroscopic one-dimensional material formed by assembling elementary graphene flakes, has emerged in response to the increasing demand for multifunctional or even smart fibers. Based on the astonishing properties of graphene building blocks, graphene fiber presents a series of attractive features, such as superior mechanical strength and electronic conductivity, light-weight, and efficient thermal conductivity. As a result, graphene fiber exhibits broad prospects for application in ultralight cables for aerospace, wearable energy storage devices, biosensors, and neuroelectronics. graphene fiber may provide a critical breakthrough for realizing multi-functional fibers or even smart textiles. Since it was first prepared in 2011, numerous fabrication techniques have been developed to assemble graphene fiber, such as wet spinning, space-confined hydrothermal assembly, film twisting approaches, and template-assisted chemical vapor deposition. Among various graphene fiber preparation approaches, wet spinning has great application potential, as it affords the best mechanical strength and electrical conductivity of the prepared graphene fiber, along with great compatibility with the commercialized wet spinning technique. Therefore, the wet spinning approach has attracted extensive attention for batch production of high-performance graphene fiber. Herein, we introduce the pivotal steps of the wet spinning preparation of graphene fiber, with focus on summarizing the detailed strategies for enhancing the fiber properties and we also discuss the relationship between the structure and assembly approaches. The wet spinning technology for assembling graphene fiber includes a series of critical steps, such as preparation of the spinning liquid, bath coagulation, spinneret design, and post-treatment process. These procedures may have a significant influence on the micro-, meso-, and macro-structure of the final prepared graphene fiber. We also discuss the fundamental relationship between the typical properties of graphene fibers and their hierarchical structures, such as the in-planar structure of graphene sheets, aggregation structure of graphene flakes, and the macrostructure or morphology of graphene fiber. The recent advances in graphene fiber-based smart fibers and fabric applications are also analyzed, highlighting possible strategies for promoting structural-functional integrated applications. Finally, the current challenges and possible approaches for further improving the mechanical and electric properties of graphene fiber are presented. This review can be briefly divided into three parts: (1) details of the wet spinning process and its specific influence on the structural features of graphene fiber, (2) characteristics of current graphene fibers and promising strategies for enhancing the properties, (3) latest studies of graphene fiber applications and perspectives for future application.

Key words:
• Graphene fiber
•  /  Wet spinning
•  /  Structure
•  /  Property
•  /  Application

• 1. [1]

     Geim A. K.; Novoselov K.S. Nat. Mater.; 2007, 6, 183. doi: 10.1038/nmat1849

  2. [2]

     Xu, Z.; Gao, C. Mater. Today 2015, 18, 480. doi: 10.1016/j.mattod.2015.06.009

  3. [3]

     Meng, F.; Lu, W.; Li, Q.; Byun, J. H.; Oh, Y.; Chou, T. W. Adv Mater. 2015, 27, 5113. doi: 10.1002/adma.201501126

  4. [4]

     Xu, Z.; Gao, C. Acc. Chem. Res. 2014, 47, 1267. doi: 10.1021/ar4002813

  5. [5]

     Cheng, H.; Hu, C.; Zhao, Y.; Qu, L. NPG Asia Mater. 2014, 6, e113. doi: 10.1038/am.2014.48

  6. [6]

     Li, Q. W.; Li, Y.; Zhang, X. F.; Chikkannanavar, S. B.; Zhao, Y. H.; Dangelewicz, A. M.; Zhu, Y. T. Adv. Mater. 2007, 19, 3358. doi: 10.1002/adma.200602966

  7. [7]

     朱美芳. 碳基纤维在可穿戴能源储存器件中的应用, 能源前沿论坛; 上海: 2020年3月30日.Zhu, M. F. Application of carbon-based fibers in wearable energy storage devices, Energy Frontier Forum, Shanghai, March 30, 2020.

  8. [8]

     Jeffries, R. Nature 1971, 232, 304. doi: 10.1038/232304a0

  9. [9]

     Ko, T. H.; Huang, L. C. J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 1998, 70, 2409. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4628(19981219)70:12<2409::AID-APP13>3.3.CO;2-S

  10. [10]

      Diefendorf, R. J. ACS Symp. Ser. 1976, 21, 315. doi: 10.1021/bk-1976-0021.ch022

  11. [11]

      杨金龙. 物理化学学报, 2019, 35, 1043. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201903011Yang, J. L. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2019, 35, 1043. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201903011

  12. [12]

      成会明. 物理化学学报, 2020, 36, 1909042. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201909042Cheng, H. M. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2020, 36, 1909042. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201909042

  13. [13]

      Ago, H.; Imamoto, K.; Ishigami, N.; Ohdo, R.; Ikeda, K. I.; Tsuji, M. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2007, 90, 123112. doi: 10.1063/1.2715031

  14. [14]

      王可心, 史刘嵘, 王铭展, 杨皓, 刘忠范, 彭海琳. 物理化学学报, 2019, 35, 1112. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201805032Wang, K. X.; Shi, L. R.; Wang, M. Z.; Yang. H.; Liu. Z. F.; Peng. H. L. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2019, 35, 1112. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201805032

  15. [15]

      张树辰, 张娜, 张锦. 物理化学学报, 2020, 36, 1907021. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201907021Zhang, S. C.; Zhang, N.; Zhang, J. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2020, 36, 1907021. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201907021

  16. [16]

      Cheng, H. M.; Li, F.; Su, G.; Pan, H. Y.; He, L. L.; Sun, X.; Dresselhaus, M. S. Appl. Phy. Lett. 1998, 72; 3282. doi: 10.1063/1.121624

  17. [17]

      Wu, A. S.; Chou, T. W. Mater. Today 2012, 15, 302.. doi: 10.1016/s1369-7021(12)70135

  18. [18]

      夏凯伦, 蹇木强, 张莹莹. 物理化学学报, 2016, 32, 2427. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201607261Xia, K. L; Jian, M. Q.; Zhang, Y. Y. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2016, 32, 2427. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201607261

  19. [19]

      Zhang, M.; Atkinson, K. R.; Baughman, R. H. Science 2004, 306, 1358. doi: 10.1126/science.1104276

  20. [20]

      王灏珉, 何茂帅, 张莹莹. 物理化学学报, 2019, 35, 1207. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201811011Wang, H. M.; He, M. S.; Zhang, Y. Y. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2019, 35, 1207. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201811011

  21. [21]

      Vigolo, B.; Penicaud, A.; Coulon, C.; Sauder, C.; Pailler, R.; Journet, C.; Poulin, P. Science 2000, 290, 1331. doi: 10.1126/science.290.5495.1331

  22. [22]

      Jiang, K. L.; Li, Q. Q.; Fan, S. S. Nature 2002, 419, 801. doi: 10.1038/419801a

  23. [23]

      Ericson, L. M.; Fan, H.; Peng, H.; Davis, V. A.; Zhou, W.; Sulpizio, J.; Smalley, R. E. Science 2004, 305, 1447. doi: 10.1126/science.1101398

  24. [24]

      Behabtu, N.; Young, C. C.; Tsentalovich, D. E.; Kleinerman, O.; Wang, X.; Ma, A. W.; Pasquali, M. Science 2013, 339, 182. doi: 10.1126/science.1228061

  25. [25]

      Bai, Y.; Zhang, R.; Ye, X.; Zhu, Z.; Xie, H.; Shen, B.; Cai, D.; Liu, B.; Zhang, C.; Jia, Z.; et al. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2018, 13, 589. doi: 10.1038/s41565-018-0141-z

  26. [26]

      Zhang X. H.; Lu W. B.; Zhou G.H.; Li Q. W. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 1902028. doi: 10.1002/adma.201902028

  27. [27]

      Xu, Z.; Gao, C. Nat. Commun. 2011, 2, 571. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1583

  28. [28]

      Xu, Z.; Sun, H.; Zhao, X.; Gao, C. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 188. doi: 10.1002/adma.201203448

  29. [29]

      Xiang, C.; Young, C. C.; Wang, X.; Yan, Z.; Hwang, C. C.; Cerioti, G.; Tour, J. M. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 4592. doi: 10.1002/adma.201301065

  30. [30]

      Jalili; R.; Aboutalebi, S. H.; Esrafilzadeh, D.; Shepherd, R. L.; Chen, J.; Aminorroaya-Yamini, S.; Wallace, G. G. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2013, 23, 5345. doi: 10.1002/adfm.201300765

  31. [31]

      Xin, G. Q.; Yao, T. K.; Sun, H. T.; Scott, S. M.; Shao, D. L; Wang, G. K.; Lian, J. Science 2015, 349, 1083. doi: 10.1126/science.aaa6502

  32. [32]

      Xin, G. Q.; Zhu, W. G.; Deng, Y. X.; Cheng, J.; Zhagn, L. T.; Chung, A. J.; De, S.; Lian, J. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2019, 14, 168. doi: 10.1038/s41565-018-0330-9

  33. [33]

      Xu, Z.; Liu, Y.; Zhao, X.; Peng, L.; Sun, H.; Xu, Y.; Gao, C. Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 6449. doi: 10.1002/adma.201506426

  34. [34]

      Li, P.; Liu, Y.; Shi, S.; Xu, Z.; Ma, W.; Wang, Z.; Gao, C. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 30, 52, 2006584. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202006584

  35. [35]

      Huang, G.; Hou, C.; Shao, Y.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y.; Zhu, M. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4, 4248. doi: 10.1038/srep04248

  36. [36]

      Tian, Q.; Xu, Z.; Liu, Y.; Fang, B.; Peng, L.; Xi, J.; Gao, C.; Nanoscale 2017, 9, 12335. doi: 10.1039/c7nr03895j

  37. [37]

      Feng, L.; Chang, Y.; Zhong, J.; Jia, D. C. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 10803. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-29157-4

  38. [38]

      Xiang, C. S.; Behabtu, N.; Liu, Y. D.; Chae, H. G.; Young, C. C.; Genorio, B.; Tsentalovich, D. E.; Zhang, C. G.; Kosynkin, D. V.; Lomeda, J. R.; et al. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 1628. doi: 10.1021/nn305506s

  39. [39]

      Jang, Y.; Carretero, G. J.; Choi, A.; Kim, W. J.; Kozlov, E. M.; Kim, T.; Kang, T. J.; Beak, S. J.; Kim, D. W.; Peak, Y. W. Nanotechnology 2012, 23, 235601. doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/23/23/235601

  40. [40]

      Dong, Z.; Jiang, C.; Cheng, H.; Zhao, Y.; Shi, G.; Jiang, L.; Qu, L. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 1856. doi: 10.1002/adma.201200170

  41. [41]

      Meng, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Hu, C.; Cheng, H.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Qu, L. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25; 2326. doi: 10.1002/adma.201300132

  42. [42]

      Hu, C.; Zhao, Y.; Cheng, H.; Wang, Y.; Dong, Z.; Jiang, C.; Qu, L. Nano Lett. 2012, 12, 5879. doi: 10.1021/nl303243h

  43. [43]

      Rodolfo, C. S.; Aaron, M. G.; Hyung-ick, K.; Hong-kyu, J.; Ferdinando, T.; Sofia, V. D.; Lakshmy, P. R.; Ana, L. E.; Nestor, P. L.; Jonghwan, S.; et al. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 5959. doi: 10.1021/nn501098d

  44. [44]

      Wang, R.; Xu, Z.; Zhuang, J.; Liu, Z.; Peng, L.; Li, Z.; Gao, C. Adv. Electron. Mater. 2017, 3, 1600425. doi: 10.1002/aelm.201600425

  45. [45]

      Carretero, G. J.; Castillo, M. E.; Dias, L. M.; Acik, M.; Rogers, D. M. Sovich, J.; Baughman, R. H. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 5695. doi: 10.1002/adma.201201602

  46. [46]

      Sun, Y.; Wang, Y.; Hua, C.; Ge, Y.; Hou, S.; Shang, Y.; Cao, A. Carbon 2018, 132, 394. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2018.02.086

  47. [47]

      Zheng, B.; Gao, W.; Liu, Y.; Wang, R.; Li, Z.; Xu, Z.; Gao, C. Carbon 2020, 158, 157. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2019.11.072

  48. [48]

      Li, X.; Zhao, T.; Wang, K.; Yang, Y.; Wei, J.; Kang, F.; Zhu, H. Langmuir 2011, 27, 12164. doi: 10.1021/la202380g

  49. [49]

      Wang, H.; Wang, C.; Jian, M.; Wang, Q.; Xia, K.; Yin, Z.; Zhang, Y. Nano Res. 2018, 11, 2347. doi: 10.1007/s12274-017-1782-1

  50. [50]

      Chen, T.; Dai, L. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2015, 54, 14947. doi: 10.1002/anie.201507246

  51. [51]

      Wang, X.; Qiu, Y.; Cao, W.; Hu, P. Chem. Mater. 2015, 27, 6969. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b02098

  52. [52]

      Chen, K.; Shi, L.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, Z. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2018, 47, 3018. doi: 10.1039/c7cs00852j

  53. [53]

      Zeng, J.; Ji, X.; Ma, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, S.; Ren, Z.; Yu, J. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, 1705380. doi: 10.1002/adma.201705380

  54. [54]

      Chen, K.; Zhou, X.; Cheng, X.; Qiao, R.; Cheng, Y.; Liu, C.; Liu, Z. Nat. Photon. 2019, 13, 754. doi: 10.1038/s41566-019-0492-5

  55. [55]

      Chen, Z.; Qi, Y.; Chen, X.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, Z. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, e1803639. doi: 10.1002/adma.201803639

  56. [56]

      Deng, B.; Liu, Z.; Peng, H. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1800996. doi: 10.1002/adma.201800996

  57. [57]

      Deng, B.; Xin, Z.; Xue, R.; Zhang, S.; Xu, X.; Gao, J.; Peng, H. Sci. Bull. 2019, 64, 659. doi: 10.1016/j.scib.2019.04.030

  58. [58]

      Lin, L.; Peng, H.; Liu, Z. Nat. Mater. 2019, 18, 520. doi: 10.1038/s41563-019-0341-4

  59. [59]

      Cui, G.; Cheng, Y.; Liu, C.; Huang, K.; Li, J.; Wang, P.; Liu, Z. ACS Nano 2020, 14, 5938. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c01298

  60. [60]

      程熠, 王坤, 亓月, 刘忠范. 物理化学学报, 2022, 38, 2006046. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202006046Cheng, Y.; Wang, K.; Qi, Y.; Liu, Z. F. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2022, 38, 2006046. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202006046

  61. [61]

      Suter, L. J.; Sinclair, C. R.; Coveney, V. P. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, e2003213. doi: 10.1002/adma.202003213

  62. [62]

      Xu, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Li, P. G.; Gao, C. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 7103. doi: 10.1021/nn3021772

  63. [63]

      Jalili, R.; Aboutalebi, S. H.; Esrafilzadeh, D.; Konstantinov, K.; Razal, J. M.; Moulton, S. E.; Wallace, G. G.; Mater. Horiz. 2014, 1, 87. doi: 10.1039/c3mh00050h

  64. [64]

      Chen, S.; Ma, W.; Cheng, Y.; Weng, Z.; Sun, B.; Wang, L.; Cheng, H. M.; Nano Energy 2015, 15, 642. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.05.004

  65. [65]

      Chen, L.; He, Y.; Chai, S.; Qiang, H.; Chen, F.; Fu Q. Nanoscale 2013, 5, 5809. doi: 10.1039/c3nr01083j

  66. [66]

      Shin, M. K.; Lee, B.; Kim, S. H.; Lee, J. A.; Spinks, G. M.; Gambhir, S.; Kim, S. J. Nat. Commun. 2012, 3, 65. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1661

  67. [67]

      Ma, T.; Gao, H. L.; Cong, H. P.; Yao, H. B.; Wu, L.; Yu, Z. Y.; Yu, S. H. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, e1706435. doi: 10.1002/adma.201706435

  68. [68]

      Kim, I. H.; Yun, T.; Kim, J. E.; Yu, H.; Sasikala, S. P.; Lee, K. E.; Kim, S. O. Adv. Mater. 2018, 30, e1803267. doi: 10.1002/adma.201803267

  69. [69]

      Li, M.; Zhang, X.; Wang, X.; Ru, Y.; Qiao, J. Nano Lett. 2016, 16, 6511. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03108

  70. [70]

      Zhen, X. Chao, G. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 2908. doi: 10.1021/nn200069w

  71. [71]

      Park, H.; Lee, K. H.; Kim, Y. B.; Ambade, S. B.; Noh, S. H.; Eom, W.; Hwang, J. Y.; Lee, W. J.; Huang, J.; Han, T. H. Sci. Adv. 2018, 4, eaau2014. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aau2104

  72. [72]

      He, H. Y.; Klinowski, J.; Forster, M.; Lerf, A. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1998, 287, 53. doi: 10.1016/s0009-2614(98)00144-4

  73. [73]

      Schniepp, H. C.; Li, J. L.; McAllister, M. J.; Sai, H.; Herrera-Alonso, M.; Adamson, D. H.; Prud'homme, R. K.; Car, R.; Saville, D. A.; Aksay, I. A. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 8535. doi: 10.1021/jp060936f

  74. [74]

      Moon, I. K.; Lee, J.; Ruoff, R. S.; Lee, H. Nat. Commun. 2010, 1, 73. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1067

  75. [75]

      Yang, D.; Velamakanni, A.; Bozoklu, G.; Park, S.; Stoller, M.; Piner, R. D.; Stankovich, S.; Jung, I.; Field, D. A.; Ventrice, C. A.; et al. Carbon 2009, 47, 145. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2008.09.045

  76. [76]

      Kotov, N. A.; Dekany, I.; Fendler, J. H. Adv. Mater. 1996, 8, 8. doi: 10.1002/adma.19960080806

  77. [77]

      Sun, W.; Wang, L.; Yang, Z.; Zhu, T.; Wu, T.; Dong, C.; Liu, G. Chem. Mater. 2018, 30, 7473. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b01902

  78. [78]

      Zhou, M.; Wang, Y.; Zhai, Y.; Zhai, J.; Ren, W.; Wang, F.; Dong, S. Chem. Eur. J. 2009, 15, 6116. doi: 10.1002/chem.200900596

  79. [79]

      Bagri, A.; Mattevi, C.; Acik, M.; Chabal, Y. J.; Chhowalla, M.; Shenoy, V. B. Nat. Chem. 2010, 2, 581. doi: 10.1038/nchem.686

  80. [80]

      Pei, S; Cheng, H. M.; Carbon 2012, 50, 3210. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2011.11.010

  81. [81]

      Chae, H. G.; Kumar, S. Mater. Sci. 2014, 319, 908. doi: 10.1126/science.1153911

  82. [82]

      Castro Neto, A. H.; Guinea, F.; Peres, N. M. R.; Novoselov, K. S.; Geim, A. K. Rev. Mod. Phys. 2009, 81, 109. doi: 10.1103/RevModPhys.81.109

  83. [83]

      Liu, Y.; Liang, H.; Xu, Z.; Xi, J.; Chen, G.; Gao, W.; Gao, C. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 4301. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.7b01491

  84. [84]

      Xu, Z.; Sun, H.; Gao, C. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 3249. doi: 10.1002/adma.201300774

  85. [85]

      Liu, Y.; Xu, Z.; Zhan, J.; Li, P.; Gao, C. Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 7941. doi: 10.1002/adma.201602444

  86. [86]

      Fang, B.; Chang, D.; Xu, Z.; Gao, C. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 1902664. doi: 10.1002/adma.201902664

  87. [87]

      陈召龙, 高鹏, 刘忠范. 物理化学学报, 2020, 36, 1907004. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201907004Chen, Z. L.; Gao, P.; Liu, Z. F. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2020, 36, 1907004. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201907004

  88. [88]

      张雷勇, 何水剑, 陈水亮, 郭乔辉, 侯豪情. 物理化学学报, 2010, 26, 3181. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB20101135Zhang, L. Y.; He, S. J.; Chen, S. L.; Guo, Q. H.; Hou, H. Q. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2010, 26, 3181. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB20101135

  89. [89]

      田地, 卢晓峰, 李闱墨, 李悦, 王策. 物理化学学报; 2020, 36, 1904056. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201904056Tian, D.; Lu, X. F.; Li, W. M.; Li, Y.; Wang, C. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2020, 36, 1904056. doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB201904056

  90. [90]

      Li, Z.; Xu, Z.; Liu, Y.; Wang, R.; Gao, C. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7, 13684. doi: 10.1038/ncomms13684

  91. [91]

      Seyedin, S.; Romano, M. S.; Minett, A. I.; Razal, J. M. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 14946. doi: 10.1038/srep14946

  92. [92]

      Fang, B.; Peng, L.; Xu, Z.; Gao, C. ACS Nano 2015. 9, 5214. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b00616

  93. [93]

      Jang, J. S.; Yu, H.; Choi, S. J.; Koo, W. T.; Lee, J.; Kim, D. H.; Kim, I. D. ACS Appl. Mater. Inter. 2019, 11, 10208. doi: 10.1021/acsami.8b22015

  94. [94]

      Fang, B.; Xiao, Y.; Xu, Z.; Chang, D.; Wang, B.; Gao, W.; Gao, C. Mater. Horiz. 2019, 6, 1207. doi: 10.1039/c8mh01647j

  95. [95]

      Peng, Y.; Lin, D.; Gooding, J. J.; Xue, Y.; Dai, L. Carbon 2018, 136, 329. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2018.05.004

  96. [96]

      Choi, S. J.; Yu, H.; Jang, J. S.; Kim, M. H.; Kim, S. J.; Jeong, H. S.; Kim, I. D. Small 2018, 14, e1703934. doi: 10.1002/smll.201703934.

  97. [97]

      Shi, Q.; Li, J.; Hou, C.; Shao, Y.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y.; Wang, H. Chem. Commun. 2017, 53, 11118. doi: 10.1039/c7cc03408c

  98. [98]

      Hua, C.; Shang, Y.; Li, X.; Hu, X.; Wang, Y.; Wang, X.; Cao, A. Nanoscale 2016, 8, 10659. doi: 10.1039/c6nr02111e

  99. [99]

      Cheng, H.; Hu, Y.; Zhao, F.; Dong, Z.; Wang, Y.; Chen, N.; Qu, L. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 2909. doi: 10.1002/adma.201305708

  100. [100]

       Cheng, H. H.; Liu, J.;; Zhao, Y.; Hu, C. G.; Zhang, Z. P.; Chen, N.; Jiang, L.; Qu, L. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 125, 10676. doi: 10.1002/anie.201304358

  101. [101]

       Cheng, H.; Liu, J.; Zhao, Y.; Hu, C.; Zhang, Z.; Chen, N.; Qu, L. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 10482. doi: 10.1002/anie.201304358

  102. [102]

       Liang, Y.; Zhao, F.; Cheng, Z.; Zhou, Q.; Shao, H.; Jiang, L.; Qu, L. Nano Energy 2017, 32, 329. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.12.062

  103. [103]

       Shao, Y.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y. J. Mater. Chem. C 2013, 1, 1245. doi: 10.1039/c2tc00235c

  104. [104]

       Shao, Y.; El-Kady, M. F.; Wang, L. J.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y.; Wang, H. Mousavi, M. F.; Kaner, R. B.; Chem. Soc. Rev. 2015, 44, 3639. doi: 10.1039/c4cs00316k

  105. [105]

       Shao, Y.; Li, J.; Li, Y.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Q.; Kaner, R. B. Mater. Horiz. 2017, 4, 1145. doi: 10.1039/c7mh00441a

  106. [106]

       Shao, Y.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y. NPG Asia Mater. 2014, 6, 119. doi: 10.1038/am.2014.59

  107. [107]

       Huang, G.; Hou, C.; Shao, Y.; Zhu, B.; Jia, B.; Wang, H.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Y. Nano Energy 2015, 12, 26. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2014.11.056

  108. [108]

       El-Kady, M. F.; Shao, Y.; Kaner, R. B. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2016, 1, 16033. doi: 10.1038/natrevmats.2016.33

  109. [109]

       Kou, L.; Huang, T.; Zheng, B.; Han, Y.; Zhao, X.; Gopalsamy, K.; Gao, C. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 3754. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4754

  110. [110]

       Cai, S.; Huang, T.; Chen, H.; Salman, M.; Gopalsamy, K.; Gao, C. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 22489. doi: 10.1039/c7ta07937k

  111. [111]

       Hoshide, T.; Zheng, Y.; Hou, J.; Wang, Z.; Li, Q.; Zhao, Z.; Geng, F. Nano Lett. 2017, 17, 3543. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00623

  112. [112]

       Chong, W. G.; Huang, J.-Q.; Xu, Z.-L.; Qin, X.; Wang, X.; Kim, J.-K. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2017, 27, 1604815. doi: 10.1002/adfm.201604815

  113. [113]

       Cao, J.; Zhang, Y. Y.; Men, C. L.; Sun, Y. Y.; Wang, Z. N.; Zhang, X. T.; Li, Q. W. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 4325. doi: 10.1021/nn4059488

  114. [114]

       Zhao, S. Y.; Li, G.; Tong, C. J.; Chen, W. J.; Wang, P. X.; Dai, J. K.; Fu, X. F.; Xu, Z.; Liu, X. J.; Liang, Z. F.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 1788. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15570-9

•